deals with diegetic theatre<\/em> – with mime, pantomime and multiple character changes, for the creation of a poetic multiverse.<\/p>\n\n\n\nOn each level, the exercises are grouped into the following study topics:<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n(Games and limbering-up exercises)<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\nBody education<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\nVoice and body<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\nAcrobatics<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\nTechniques and adaptations, movement analysis<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\nImprovisation and application<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\n(Stretching)<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\nProper movement techniques are developed by the exercises in parts II and III. But besides movement skills<\/em>, always belonging to a particular style, what more must be taught to future performers of movement-based theatre?<\/p>\n\n\n\nUsually, the teacher must start below zero<\/em> – with the re-education of mind and body.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\nDe-blocking mind and body<\/h2>\n\n\n\n Before the course starts, an assessment of the capacities and the level of the students is necessary. The placement<\/em> of exercises in the student’s development must be considered, not only the placement of the exercises in a course or a syllabus.<\/p>\n\n\n\nThe mind and body of the acting student must be deblocked,<\/em> made fit for spontaneous action and reaction. This is the first need in body-based theatre training. The actor must be prepared to think with the entire body-mind<\/em> and be enabled for creative response. It is long-term learning for the actor and happens by practice alone, and can only happen in a creative atmosphere.<\/p>\n\n\n\nRe-education of the body towards functionality and neutrality<\/h2>\n\n\n\n Movement skills develop only with a functionally moving body. For many students, the body must therefore be re-educated. Meyerhold invented his system of biomechanics for the purpose of functionality<\/em> (with a strong aesthetic viewpoint). He focused on movement and movement sequences.<\/em> Etienne Decroux, on the other hand, was more a sculptor of the human body. He analysed the possibilities and limits of human movement and segmented it as a cubist painter or sculptor.<\/p>\n\n\n\nJacques Lecoq – influenced by his first profession as a physiotherapist and through Jean Dasté[36]<\/span>, Jacques Copeau[37]<\/span> and the commedia dell’arte – took a more practical, more artistic, and more pedagogically appealing route. He wanted to achieve the state of physical and mental<\/em> functionality with the help of the neutral mask<\/em>. He envisaged a moving body that is efficient (to move in the physiologically correct way), but at the same time being effective (doing the right things).<\/p>\n\n\n\nTo him, neutrality<\/em> seems to have meant that an actor is efficient and creative not only with a functional body, but when he is not hampered by prevailing concepts. He should be physically, and also mentally neutral and available<\/em>, as he often mentioned in class. Lecoq’s students must all empty their cup! Start from zero! The ideal is an actor who is open-minded and awake to the world, and available (disponible)<\/em> to partner(s) (for reaction and action, even before the rise of emotion). ‘To explore the world a new, with a child’s eyes’, as Lecoq used to say in class[38]<\/span>.<\/p>\n\n\n\nLecoq’s neutrality is also a mental one – not only to move in the right way, but to do the right things! For Lecoq the right things were to move and to act, to re-act without preconceived views about the world, but with genuine curiosity and in all simplicity, without preciousness. No movement with ballet-like embellishments! No en dehors,<\/em> no courbes<\/em> and no tracé<\/em> is necessary![39]<\/span> Instead, the perfectly functioning body with the perfectly functioning mind, and without pre-concepts! It is the ideal body of the puppet, as long ago described and craved by Heinrich von Kleist and Gordon Craig.<\/p>\n\n\n\nTechnically, physical functionality has to do with the correct – by counterforces balanced positioning of the pelvis and the spine – and economic use of the muscular apparatus[40]<\/span>. In fact, the functional, neutral body is already a fictive body<\/em>, because it is an ideal out of reach. It is a must for the performer of movement-based theatre.<\/p>\n\n\n\nThrough years of practice, I found Asian<\/em> martial arts<\/em> training (especially kung fu<\/em>, karate, judo, aikido<\/em> and kalarippayattu<\/em>), the most efficient way for the development of a functional and neutral body.<\/p>\n\n\n\nSocial competence on stage<\/h2>\n\n\n\n Social competence<\/em> on stage – intensive collaboration with partner(s), is an important feature for collective and psychological theatre (Stanislavski) and is developed by intensive partner and group work.<\/p>\n\n\n\nThe relationship to the partner on stage is a concrete<\/em> one (as an example in the theatre of Penciulescu or Brook). I hear, see, smell, taste; I react to the perceived movement and the intention<\/em> of the partner(s). All exercises of level I are exercises that may, beside other qualities, develop social competence.<\/p>\n\n\n\nIn Grotowskian theatre on the other hand, the relationship to the partner on stage is an imaginary and inner one. This partner, even when he is in the flesh working opposite me, is fictive for me. I react (found in the work of Grotowski and Barba and others) on fictive stimuli.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Improvisation<\/h2>\n\n\n\n The student must acquire improvisation skills. Besides the training, proper, regular improvisations<\/em> must be done in order to learn to apply and adapt actions in various new situations, that is to re-act,<\/em> rather than to act. Body and mind must be prepared to re-act spontaneously to a partner, to a stimulus.<\/p>\n\n\n\nI discern three different types of improvisation:<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n\nTransformations and transfers <\/em>(see Lecoqian techniques in the exercises)<\/li>\n\n\n\nAim-based (Stanislavskian) improvisation <\/em>(The actor must have an objective, solve a problem<\/em> by finding a creative solution)<\/li>\n\n\n\nRandom (‘jamming’) improvisation<\/em> (The actor must simply answer the partner, and drive the theme forward)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\nPaidia <\/em>and ludus<\/em><\/h2>\n\n\n\nThere are two different main<\/em> approaches for studies and performance to consider, as mentioned by Huizinga[41]<\/span> and Roger Callois[42]<\/span>: Paidia<\/em> is the enjoyment of the playing child, to have a good time and have fun through play, which is a typical feature for motivating an action for children and beginners. Sometimes, paidia<\/em> exercises give even the highly professional actor new energy kicks – especially when work is approached too intellectually. Theatre is also an opportunity for play, recreation and fun!<\/p>\n\n\n\nLudus<\/em> is the serious involvement in fictive reality with deep focus<\/em>, skills<\/em> and seriousness<\/em>, through the attitude of the professional. Sometimes ludus<\/em> is mixed with agon <\/em>(competition), another feature of professional work.<\/p>\n\n\n\nIn our pluralistic theatre world, the body is considered in different ways, according to the ruling paradigms, tastes and fashions of theatre and dance. The body of the actor serves different purposes. It must be defined what type of body<\/em> the exercises are meant to be developed for, and in what way the training may be effective for this type of body. For didactic reasons, I discern here eight ‘different’ bodies,<\/em> as kind of theatre-aesthetic categories.<\/p>\n\n\n\nTo achieve specialised bodies<\/h2>\n\n\n\n But what type of body, having which qualities and skills are requested of the actor of movement-based theatre? In the following chart, eight body types are presented that serve different stage purposes and need different acting qualities and skills.<\/p>\n\n\n\nBody type<\/td> Qualities<\/td> Skills<\/td><\/tr> The private body<\/td> <\/td> <\/td><\/tr> The daily <\/em>(socialised) body<\/em> (film, stage)<\/td>Certain control,<\/em> certain choices, socially adapted, behaves similarly to the private body<\/td>No specific skills<\/td><\/tr> The neutral body<\/em> (Lecoq pedagogics)<\/td>Is a functional,<\/em> neutral starting point for movement and characters<\/td>Correct, functional movement<\/em> and action, no private gestures<\/td><\/tr>The fighting body<\/em> (Chinese opera, kabuki, kathakali and martial arts)<\/td>Needs quick and precise reactions, perseverance<\/em>, must always be focused<\/em> (‘The body becomes all eyes’[43]<\/span>)<\/td> Attacking and defending skills, swiftness<\/td><\/tr> The dramatic body<\/em>, extra-daily body, delated body[44]<\/span> as craved by Barba, Decroux, Lecoq)<\/td> Energetic,<\/em> dramatic, vibrant and dilated movement, conscious about partner(s) and about form, space and rhythm<\/td>Superior<\/em> and subtle movement and acrobatics – and vocal skills<\/em> to play fictive characters<\/td><\/tr>The gender-defined body<\/em> (Chinese opera, kabuki, kathakali)<\/td><\/td> Skills of presenting socio-connected gender signs<\/em> and behaviour patterns<\/em><\/td><\/tr>The poetic body<\/em> (Mime, storytelling)<\/td>Androgynous multiverse<\/em><\/td>Superior mime and pantomime skills<\/em>, superior skills of body, hands and eyes<\/td><\/tr>The virtuoso body<\/em> (Circus)<\/td><\/td> Extreme and virtuoso body skills<\/em> as acrobatics, dance, balance, juggling, contortions, etc.<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\nThe private body,<\/em> ‘the Leib’,<\/em> is the subject. Some actions of the private body – such as to show itself naked, to sweat, to cry, to eat, to drink, to kiss, to copulate, to give birth, etc. (as well as to scratch oneself, to touch one’s own hair unconsciously, etc.), should not be exposed in public! The actions of the private body were already mentioned by the Indian Nāṭyasastra<\/em> as forbidden actions on stage (such as to eat, drink, kiss and die). Our contemporary society uses the look of the private body for public sensations: the extra-beautiful model as well as the ugly and abnormal or other-abled awake public sensation mongering.<\/p>\n\n\n\nBesides the private body with its individual expressions – my personal ways to move, to touch my hair, and to behave (such as tensed shoulders, an always rounded back, etc) – express private emotions, feelings and habits, and do not belong onto the stage!<\/p>\n\n\n\n
In the world of theatre, the private body is mostly ‘covered’, that is to say transformed into a character<\/em> by costume and makeup. It merges with the private body into somebody else. To this belongs the physical behaviours of another, of the character.<\/p>\n\n\n\nThe daily<\/em> or social body<\/em>’s differences from the private body are slight, but they exist in the consciousness of the actor, his role, and his presentation on stage. The actor potentially uses some behaviour patterns he attributes to his character. He is involved in his role but knows how far to go and has control. He moves naturally <\/em>but avoids private movement. He has learnt to control random and private movement and knows his personal movement peculiarities. He does not need any specific movement skills<\/em>. Body expression is not stylised or formal\/artistic. Through training of the daily body, the actor is more focused, learns to react here and now and to collaborate with partner(s), and to produce emotions and feelings as side products of action. He develops qualities, <\/em>as discussed above, rather<\/em> than skills.<\/em> Acting on the small scale is preferred and poker faces are ‘hip’. Movement reactions, facial expressions and gestures are minimalized!<\/p>\n\n\n\nIf the daily body gets conscient about the personal<\/em> ways to move and the student unlearns them (if they are not functional),<\/em> the daily body turns into a neutral body.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\nThe neutral body<\/em> has become famous through the pedagogy of Jacques Lecoq and the neutral mask, but the idea behind it is much older. The neutral body is efficient and effective, a functional body<\/em>. It is not a character, but a blank page. The neutral body knows neither gender-defined nor ethnic or individualized movement, or behaviours patterns. The neutral body is simply human[45]<\/span>. The neutral body is also an androgenous body. Lecoq used both a female and a male mask, but there was no difference in movement of functionality and neutrality observed. Physical neutrality was functionality for Lecoq. The neutral, functional<\/em> body is the starting point zero for the impersonation of any physical characters, for example with expressive masks (some crave extreme bodies). By using the neutral mask, Lecoq has transformed the pedagogical device of physical and mental neutrality into a noble performing task.<\/p>\n\n\n\nIs the functional (or neutral) body a dramatic body? No, the neutral body is not yet a dramatic body, because functionality and availability alone still lack dramatic attack<\/em>[46]<\/span>. In the neutral body there is no drama. It simply is.<\/p>\n\n\n\nThe fighting body<\/em> is an extension of the neutral body. It is an all-attentive, exalted, well-trained and glowing body, and is fascinating to look at. Its movements are already a show! It displays martial arts – with ample movement, much higher energy than the everyday body, and with high focus, with good physical skills and balance (kicking, pushing, throwing, jumping leaping, bending, turning, etc) and dynamics, consciousness of movement, form and rhythm. The fighting body is already a dramatic body.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\nSome forms of martial arts lie at the heart and the basis of the movement systems of several of the great Asian theatre styles, with high physical involvement, as displayed in Chinese opera (based on kung fu<\/em>), kathakaḷi<\/em> (based on kalarippayaṭṭu<\/em>), and so on.<\/p>\n\n\n\nThe dramatic <\/em>or extra-daily body<\/em>[47]<\/span> is a present body, a totally focused and self-controlled body. It has ‘attack’, a heightened state of perception, energy<\/em> and readiness (Lecoq’s disponibility)<\/em> for reaction and emotional response. It is a perfect vehicle for movement-based theatre.<\/p>\n\n\n\nThe dramatic body is a body of extremes and is capable of precarious balance (as found in classical ballet as well as in several Asian classical theatre forms and, according to Barba and Savarese, is based on martial-arts skills (Chinese opera, kathakaḷi, kabuki). Barba mentions three particular features[48]<\/span>:<\/p>\n\n\n\n\nThe alteration of daily balance<\/em>, as a search for ‘luxury balance’<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\ndynamic opposition<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\nincoherent coherence<\/em> (such as spread legs and deeply bent knees, in principle not necessary for expression).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\nThese features are not directly attributable to expression. They are non-relevant body positions, controlled distortions of everyday balance. There may also be a different placing of the spinal column, and the direction of the actor’s eyes in space are somewhat higher than the normal horizon. ‘Maybe… they prevent the body from being condemned to resemble itself, to present or re-present only itself’[49]<\/span>.<\/p>\n\n\n\nThis dilated, ‘glowing body’ draws attention to the spectator. It is a result of serious training over a long period! It has dramatic attack,<\/em> is conscious about movement, centred, decided, ready to react, and has good moving abilities, balance, and sense of space and time. All body parts and their expressions are under control. There are no unconscious and uncontrolled movements and expressions. The entire body expresses actions, emotions and feelings that are visible in the fingertips and audible in the voice.<\/p>\n\n\n\nBut the actor’s delated, dramatic body can be developed further. It can be put into changed physical conditions: with extensions of body parts, (high heels, enormous bellies and backs, caps and headdresses, artificial breasts, hunchbacks, walking on stilts, wrappings, bodies bound together, water sleeves prolongating movement of the arms, etc). The performer develops new skills with his ‘new’ body. These artificially delated, other abled<\/em> bodies are deeply fascinating. They are the base of buffoons, gangs of evil beings, or clowns turned sour, bitter and evil, and laughing at the public[50]<\/span>.<\/p>\n\n\n\nSpecial skills of the dramatic body deal with the gender-defined body<\/em>, as a specialisation of the dramatic body.<\/p>\n\n\n\nThe gender-defined body<\/em> is a dramatic body with specific skills, presenting gender signs and behaviour patterns (to represent the extreme female<\/em> or extreme male<\/em> body), by accultured behaviour. It has been a part of world culture since the shamans of old. The gender-defined female body,<\/em> often impersonated by male actors, is maybe a ‘male’s dream’, a cultural display of exaggerated degrees of physical, social and mental female attributes – such as roundness of movement, softness (rather flexibility than strength), or extreme female characteristics that are culturally conditioned – such as grace, lightness, shyness, fickleness, swiftness, or an extremely flexible spine[51]<\/span>, small tripping steps as the nandan<\/em> of Jingju<\/em>[52]<\/span>. The gendered female body works with minimal steps, pointe shoes,<\/em> high heels, or lotus-feet shoes (<\/em>the qiao<\/em> of jingju<\/em>). Their specific movement patterns consist of diagonal spacing<\/em>, twists<\/em> and side bends of the torso and the head, and indirect glances. It presents an ideal, extreme female body with narrow shoulders and a slim body. Curvy, soft, serpentine movement style, asymmetry, as in Nihon Buyo<\/em> (the Japanese actor Tamasaburo<\/em> is an example of playing highly artistic super-females). In the Indian kathakali<\/em>, men play women (strīveṣaṃ)<\/em> and demonesses.<\/p>\n\n\n\nThe gender-defined male body<\/em>, presented by female or male performers, displays exaggerated strength and rigour (kathakali<\/em> heroes and villains, Jingju wusheng<\/em> and painted faces characters, kabuki<\/em> and kathakali<\/em> heroes, as well as Balinese baris<\/em> and masked dancers). It works with frontal, massive presentation, ample arm movements, cothurns, poses, and highly lifted legs.<\/p>\n\n\n\nThere are also interesting inter-mixtures, both with female and male movement and behaviour attributes: such as the young hero of jingju<\/em> (xiao sheng),<\/em> a sensible but somewhat effeminate character, as well as certain male kabuki<\/em> characters (such as the dandy ‘Sukeroku’ in the play ‘The Flower of Edo’)<\/em>, as well as the actresses of the Takarazuka Kagekidan<\/em> in Japan, where young women have successfully played male and female roles since 1913.<\/p>\n\n\n\nThe poetic body<\/em> is also an extension of the dramatic body. It is the body of the narrator, ‘the shaman’ of old